On october 24 1945 leaders from 51 countries met in san-francisco
Dating > On october 24 1945 leaders from 51 countries met in san-francisco
Download links: → On october 24 1945 leaders from 51 countries met in san-francisco → On october 24 1945 leaders from 51 countries met in san-francisco
Other political issues resolved by compromise were the role of the organization in the promotion of economic and social welfare; the status of colonial areas and the distribution of trusteeships; the status of regional and defense arrangements; and Great Power dominance versus the equality of states. Two years later, , a UN official, negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict. How can we oppose terrorism? The Security Council The Security Council was constructed as an organ with primary responsibility for preserving peace. The United States was concerned that Moscow's support for national liberation movements, such as that in Indonesia, might enhance the influence of the Soviet Union, and it realized at the same time that U. On January 1, 2017, Portuguese diplomat , who previously served as , became the ninth Secretary-General. Speak about the newspapers you read. This willingness was especially evident in the attention paid to the remaining colonial areas, mainly in Africa. However, the date of retrieval is often important. In recent years, a special effort has been made to reach decisions through consensus, rather than by taking a formal vote.
For a list of United Nations member states, see. For other uses, see and. The United Nations UN is an tasked to promote international cooperation and to create and maintain international order. A replacement for the ineffective , the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after with the aim of preventing another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 ; there are now 193. The is in , , and is subject to. Further main offices are situated in , , and. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict. The UN is the largest, most familiar, most internationally represented and most powerful in the world. United Nations Website This article contains. Without proper , you may see. The was drafted at between April—June 1945 in , and was signed on 26 June 1945 at the conclusion of the conference; this charter took effect on 24 October 1945, and the UN began operation. The UN's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the between the and and their respective allies. The organization participated in major actions in and , as well as approving the creation of the Israeli state in 1947. The organization's membership grew significantly following widespread in the 1960s, and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success. The UN has six principal organs: the the main deliberative assembly ; the for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security ; the ECOSOC; for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development ; the for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN ; the the primary judicial organ ; and the inactive since 1994. The UN's most prominent officer is the , an office held by Portuguese politician and diplomat since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN's work. The organization won the in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UN's effectiveness have been mixed. Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Background In the century prior to the UN's creation, several international treaty organizations and conferences had been formed to regulate conflicts between nations, such as the and the. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the , the established the to maintain harmony between countries. This organization resolved some territorial disputes and created international structures for areas such as postal mail, aviation, and opium control, some of which would later be absorbed into the UN. However, the League lacked representation for colonial peoples then half the world's population and significant participation from several major powers, including the US, USSR, Germany, and Japan; it failed to act against the in 1931, the in 1935, the in 1937, and German expansions under that culminated in the. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the. One major change from the was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted. By 1 March 1945, 21 additional states had signed. The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. The UN in 1945. In light blue, the founding members. In dark blue, protectorates and territories of the founding members. The UN was formulated and negotiated among the delegations from the the , the , the and at the in 1944. After months of planning, the opened in , 25 April 1945, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the. At the later meetings, deputized for Mister Eden, for T. Soong, and Mister for Mister Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the Security Council took place in beginning 10 January 1946. The General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in , , and —is designated as. The Norwegian Foreign Minister, , was elected as the first UN Secretary-General. Cold War Era was a particularly active Secretary-General from 1953 until his death in 1961. Though the UN's primary mandate was , the division between the US and USSR often paralysed the organization, generally allowing it to intervene only in conflicts distant from the. A notable exception was a Security Council resolution in 1950 authorizing a US-led coalition to repel the , passed in the absence of the USSR. In 1947, the General Assembly approved , approving the creation of the state of. Two years later, , a UN official, negotiated an armistice to the resulting conflict. In 1956, the was established to end the ; however, the UN was unable to intervene against the USSR's simultaneous invasion of Hungary following. In 1960, the UN deployed UNOC , the largest military force of its early decades, to bring order to the breakaway , restoring it to the control of the by 1964. While travelling to meet rebel leader during the conflict, , often named as one of the UN's most effective Secretaries-General, ; months later he was posthumously awarded the. In 1964, Hammarskjöld's successor, , deployed the , which would become one of the UN's longest-running peacekeeping missions. With the spread of in the 1960s, the organization's membership saw an influx of newly independent nations. In 1960 alone, 17 new states joined the UN, 16 of them from Africa. On 25 October 1971, with opposition from the United States, but with the support of many nations, the mainland, communist was given the Chinese seat on the Security Council in place of the that occupied Taiwan; the vote was widely seen as a sign of waning US influence in the organization. Third World nations organized into the coalition under the leadership of Algeria, which briefly became a dominant power at the UN. In 1975, a bloc comprising the USSR and Third World nations passed , over strenuous US and Israeli opposition, declaring to be racism; the resolution was repealed in 1991, shortly after the end of the Cold War. With an increasing Third World presence and the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the , , and , the UN increasingly shifted its attention to its ostensibly secondary goals of economic development and cultural exchange. By the 1970s, the UN budget for social and economic development was far greater than its peacekeeping budget. Post-Cold War , Secretary-General from 1997 to 2006 After the Cold War, the UN saw a radical expansion in its peacekeeping duties, taking on more missions in ten years than it had in the previous four decades. Between 1988 and 2000, the number of adopted Security Council resolutions more than doubled, and the peacekeeping budget increased more than tenfold. The UN negotiated an end to the , launched a successful , and oversaw democratic elections in post- South Africa and post- Cambodia. In 1991, the UN authorized a that repulsed the Iraqi. Though the UN Charter had been written primarily to prevent aggression by one nation against another, in the early 1990s the UN faced a number of simultaneous, serious crises within nations such as Somalia, Haiti, Mozambique, and the former Yugoslavia. In 1994, the failed to intervene in the amid indecision in the Security Council. Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War, American and European critics of the UN condemned the organization for perceived mismanagement and corruption. In 1984, the US President, , withdrew his nation's funding from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, founded 1946 over allegations of mismanagement, followed by Britain and Singapore. His successor, 1997—2006 , initiated further management reforms in the face of threats from the United States to withhold its UN dues. In the late 1990s and 2000s, international interventions authorized by the UN took a wider variety of forms. The in the of 1991—2002 was supplemented by British , and the was overseen by. In 2003, the United States despite failing to pass a UN Security Council resolution for authorization, prompting a new round of questioning of the organization's effectiveness. Under the eighth Secretary-General, , the UN has intervened with peacekeepers in crises including the in Sudan and the in the Democratic Republic of Congo and sent observers and chemical weapons inspectors to the. One hundred and one UN personnel died in the , the worst loss of life in the organization's history. The was held in 2000 to discuss the UN's role in the 21st century. The three day meeting was the largest gathering of world leaders in history, and culminated in the adoption by all member states of the MDGs , a commitment to achieve international development in areas such as , , and. Progress towards these goals, which were to be met by 2015, was ultimately uneven. The reaffirmed the UN's focus on promoting development, peacekeeping, human rights, and global security. The were launched in 2015 to succeed the Millennium Development Goals. In addition to addressing global challenges, the UN has sought to improve its accountability and democratic legitimacy by engaging more with civil society and fostering a global constituency. In an effort to enhance transparency, in 2016 the organization held its first public debate between candidates for Secretary-General. On January 1, 2017, Portuguese diplomat , who previously served as , became the ninth Secretary-General. Guterres has highlighted several key goals for his administration, including an emphasis on diplomacy for preventing conflicts, more effective peacekeeping efforts, and streamlining the organization to be more responsive and versatile to global needs. Main article: The UN system is based on five principal organs: the , the , the ECOSOC , the , and the. A sixth principal organ, the , suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence of , the last remaining UN trustee territory. Four of the five principal organs are located at the main UN Headquarters in New York City. The International Court of Justice is located in , while other major agencies are based in the , , and. Other UN institutions are located throughout the world. The six of the UN, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish. On the basis of the , the UN and its agencies are from the laws of the countries where they operate, safeguarding the UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries. These include specialized agencies, research and training institutions, programmes and funds, and other UN entities. The UN obey the Noblemaire principle, which is binding on any organization that belongs to the UN system. This principle calls for salaries that will draw and keep citizens of countries where salaries are highest, and also calls for equal pay for work of equal value independent of the employee's nationality. In practice, the takes reference to the highest-paying national civil service. Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax that is administered by the UN organizations. Each country has one vote. Its fifteen judges are elected by the UN General Assembly for nine-year terms. General Assembly , Soviet general secretary, addresses the UN General Assembly in December 1988. The General Assembly is the main of the UN. Composed of all , the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions, but emergency sessions can also be called. The assembly is led by a , elected from among the member states on a rotating regional basis, and 21 vice-presidents. The first session convened 10 January 1946 in the in London and included representatives of 51 nations. When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by a majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under consideration by the Security Council. Security Council , the , demonstrates a vial with probes to the UN Security Council on hearings, 5 February 2003 The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. The decisions of the Council are known as. The Security Council is made up of fifteen member states, consisting of five permanent members—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly with end of term date —Bolivia term ends 2018 , Egypt 2017 , Ethiopia 2018 , Italy 2018 , Japan 2017 , 2018 , Senegal 2017 , Sweden 2018 , Ukraine 2017 , Uruguay 2017. The five permanent members hold over UN resolutions, allowing a permanent member to block adoption of a resolution, though not debate. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms, with five member states per year voted in by the General Assembly on a. The presidency of the Security Council rotates alphabetically each month. Secretariat The current , The Secretary-General acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN. The office has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to. The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, after being recommended by the Security Council, where the permanent members have veto power. There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years. The current Secretary-General is , who replaced in 2017. Secretaries-General of the United Nations No. Name Country of origin Took office Left office Note 1 2 February 1946 10 November 1952 Resigned 2 10 April 1953 18 September 1961 Died in office 3 30 November 1961 31 December 1971 4 1 January 1972 31 December 1981 5 1 January 1982 31 December 1991 6 1 January 1992 31 December 1996 7 1 January 1997 31 December 2006 8 1 January 2007 31 December 2016 9 1 January 2017 — International Court of Justice The court had ruled that from Serbia in 2008 did not violate international law The International Court of Justice ICJ , located in The Hague, in the Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the UN. Established in 1945 by the UN Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges who serve 9-year terms and are appointed by the General Assembly; every sitting judge must be from a different nation. It is based in the in The Hague, sharing the building with the , a private centre for the study of international law. The ICJ's primary purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference, ethnic cleansing, and other issues. The ICJ can also be called upon by other UN organs to provide advisory opinions. Economic and Social Council Main article: The Economic and Social Council ECOSOC assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social co-operation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. The council has one annual meeting in July, held in either New York or Geneva. Viewed as separate from the specialized bodies it co-ordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. Owing to its broad mandate of co-ordinating many agencies, ECOSOC has at times been criticized as unfocused or irrelevant. ECOSOC's subsidiary bodies include the , which advises UN agencies on issues relating to ; the , which co-ordinates and promotes sustainable forest management; the , which co-ordinates information-gathering efforts between agencies; and the , which co-ordinates efforts between UN agencies and NGOs working towards. ECOSOC may also grant consultative status to non-governmental organizations; by 2004, more than 2,200 organizations had received this status. Specialized agencies Main article: The UN Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the United Nations can establish various specialized agencies to fulfil its duties. Some best-known agencies are the , the , United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization , the , and the WHO. The UN performs most of its humanitarian work through these agencies. Examples include mass vaccination programmes through WHO , the avoidance of famine and malnutrition through the work of the WFP , and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people for example, by. Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations No. Acronym Agency Headquarters Head Established in 1 FAO , 1945 2 IAEA , 1957 3 ICAO , 1947 4 IFAD , Kanayo F. Nwanze 1977 5 ILO , 1946 1919 6 IMO , 1948 7 IMF , 1945 1944 8 ITU , 1947 1865 9 UNESCO , 1946 10 UNIDO , 1967 11 UNWTO , 1974 12 UPU , Bishar Abdirahman Hussein 1947 1874 13 WBG , 1945 1944 14 WFP , 1963 15 WHO , 1948 16 WIPO , 1974 17 WMO , Secretary-General Michel Jarraud President 1950 1873 non-member observer states With the addition of 14 July 2011, there are 193 UN member states, including all apart from. Chapter II, Article 4. In addition, there are two : the which holds sovereignty over Vatican City and the. Group of 77 Main article: The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the UN. Seventy-seven nations founded the organization, but by November 2013 the organization had since expanded to 133 member countries. The group held its first major meeting in in 1967, where it adopted the Charter of Algiers and established the basis for permanent institutional structures. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988. In September 2013, the UN had peacekeeping soldiers deployed on 15 missions. The largest was the MONUSCO , which included 20,688 uniformed personnel. The smallest, UNMOGIP , included 42 uniformed personnel responsible for monitoring the ceasefire in. UN peacekeepers with the UNTSO have been stationed in the Middle East since 1948, the longest-running active peacekeeping mission. A study by the RAND Corporation in 2005 found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It compared efforts at nation-building by the UN to those of the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace. Also in 2005, the documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides, and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activism—mostly spearheaded by the UN—has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict in that period. Situations in which the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also intervened include the Korean War 1950—53 and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Gulf War 1990—91. The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures. In many cases, member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions. Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the , the in the 1970s, and the Rwandan genocide in 1994. Similarly, UN inaction is blamed for failing to either prevent the in 1995 or complete the peacekeeping operations in 1992—93 during the. UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape, soliciting prostitutes, and sexual abuse during various peacekeeping missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Haiti, Liberia, Sudan and what is now South Sudan, Burundi, and Ivory Coast. Scientists cited UN peacekeepers from Nepal as the likely source of the , which killed more than 8,000 Haitians following the 2010 Haiti earthquake. In addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also active in encouraging. Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for their creation. The UN has been involved with arms-limitation treaties, such as the 1967 , the 1968 , the 1971 , the 1972 , the 1992 , and the 1997 , which prohibits landmines. Three UN bodies oversee arms proliferation issues: the , the , and the. Roosevelt's widow, , and including the French lawyer. The document proclaims basic civil, political, and economic rights common to all human beings, though its effectiveness towards achieving these ends has been disputed since its drafting. In practice, the UN is unable to take significant action against human rights abuses without a Security Council resolution, though it does substantial work in investigating and reporting abuses. In 1979, the General Assembly adopted the , followed by the in 1989. With the end of the Cold War, the push for human rights action took on new impetus. The was formed in 1993 to oversee human rights issues for the UN, following the recommendation of that year's. In 2006, it was replaced by a consisting of 47 nations. Also in 2006, the General Assembly passed a , and in 2011 it passed its first resolution recognizing the rights of people. Other UN bodies responsible for issues include , a commission of ECOSOC founded in 1946; the , created in 1976; and the , founded in 1979. The UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, one of three bodies with a mandate to oversee issues related to indigenous peoples, held its first session in 2002. Numerous bodies have been created to work towards this goal, primarily under the authority of the General Assembly and ECOSOC. In 2000, the 192 UN member states agreed to achieve eight by 2015. The UNDP , an organization for grant-based technical assistance founded in 1945, is one of the leading bodies in the field of. The organization also publishes the UN , a comparative measure by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors. The FAO , also founded in 1945, promotes agricultural development and food security. Three former directors of the read the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980 The and IMF are independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947 agreement. They were initially formed separately from the UN through the in 1944. The World Bank provides loans for international development, while the IMF promotes international economic co-operation and gives emergency loans to indebted countries. In , UNHCR remains responsible for the and the The WHO , which focuses on international health issues and disease eradication, is another of the UN's largest agencies. In 1980, the agency announced that the eradication of had been completed. In subsequent decades, WHO largely eradicated , , and. The UNAIDS , begun in 1996, co-ordinates the organization's response to the AIDS epidemic. The , which also dedicates part of its resources to combating HIV, is the world's largest source of funding for and services. Along with the , the UN often takes a leading role in co-ordinating emergency relief. The WFP , created in 1961, provides food aid in response to famine, natural disasters, and armed conflict. The organization reports that it feeds an average of 90 million people in 80 nations each year. The UNHCR , established in 1950, works to protect the rights of refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless people. UNHCR and WFP programmes are funded by voluntary contributions from governments, corporations, and individuals, though the UNHCR's administrative costs are paid for by the UN's primary budget. Other Since the UN's creation, over 80 colonies have attained independence. The General Assembly adopted the in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers. The UN works towards decolonization through groups including the , created in 1962. Beginning with the formation of the UNEP in 1972, the UN has made environmental issues a prominent part of its agenda. A lack of success in the first two decades of UN work in this area led to the 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which sought to give new impetus to these efforts. In 1988, the UNEP and the WMO , another UN organization, established the , which assesses and reports on research on. The UN-sponsored , signed in 1997, set legally binding emissions reduction targets for ratifying states. The UN also declares and co-ordinates , periods of time to observe issues of international interest or concern. Examples include , , and the. The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by its GNI , with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income. The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be unduly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments in response to pressure from the United States. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%. For the LDCs , a ceiling rate of 0. A large share of the UN's expenditure addresses its core mission of peace and security, and this budget is assessed separately from the main organizational budget. UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale that includes a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. In 2017, the top 8 providers of assessed financial contributions to operations were the 28. Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget, such as UNICEF and the World Food Programme, are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments, corporations, and private individuals. The to the UN—diploma in the lobby of the in A number of agencies and individuals associated with the UN have won the in recognition of their work. Two Secretaries-General, Dag Hammarskjöld and Kofi Annan, were each awarded the prize in 1961 and 2001, respectively , as were Ralph Bunche 1950 , a UN negotiator, René Cassin 1968 , a contributor to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the US Secretary of State 1945 , the latter for his role in the organization's founding. UNICEF won the prize in 1965, the in 1969, the UN Peace-Keeping Forces in 1988, the International Atomic Energy Agency which reports to the UN in 2005, and the UN-supported in 2013. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees was awarded in 1954 and 1981, becoming one of only two recipients to win the prize twice. The UN as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001, sharing it with Annan. To mark the UN's 70th anniversary — Budapest, 2015 Since its founding, there have been many calls for but little consensus on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work. There have also been numerous calls for the , for different ways of electing the UN's Secretary-General, and for a. Southern nations tend to favour a more empowered UN with a stronger General Assembly, allowing them a greater voice in world affairs, while Northern nations prefer an economically UN that focuses on transnational threats such as terrorism. After , the was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France, and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that created the new organization. Throughout the Cold War, both the US and USSR repeatedly accused the UN of favouring the other. She knows that no state, no matter how powerful, can solve urgent problems, fight for development and bring an end to all crises... France wants the UN to be the centre of global governance. In September 2015, 's Faisal bin Hassan Trad has been elected Chair of the panel that appoints independent experts, a move criticized by human rights groups. Since 1971, the Taiwan has been excluded from the UN and since then has always been rejected in new applications. Citizens of this country are also not allowed to enter the buildings of the United Nations with the passport of Taiwan. In this way, critics agree that the UN is failing its own development goals and guidelines. This criticism also brought pressure from the , which regards the territories administered by Taiwan as their own territory. Critics have also accused the UN of bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and corruption. In 1976, the General Assembly established the to seek out inefficiencies within the UN system. During the 1990s, the US withheld dues citing inefficiency and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced. In 1994, the OIOS was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog. If radical reform was not undertaken, warned Mohamed Sahnoun, then the UN would continue to respond to such crisis with inept improvisation. In 2004, the UN faced accusations that its recently ended —in which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for basic needs to relieve the pressure of sanctions—had suffered from widespread corruption, including billions of dollars of. Progress in human development during the 20th century has been dramatic and the UN and its agencies have certainly helped the world become a more hospitable and livable place for millions. However, the Charter was later amended to list Poland as a founding member, and Poland ratified the Charter on 16 October 1945. Retrieved 18 June 2009. Retrieved 22 May 2015. Looking for the Sheriff. New York Review of Books, July 16, 1998. Retrieved 1 July 2015. Witness to History, 1929—1969. Retrieved November 28, 2014. Retrieved 1 July 2015. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland. Retrieved 29 November 2013. Retrieved 6 January 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013. Press Trust of India. Retrieved 5 November 2013. Retrieved 22 November 2006. Retrieved 1 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2016. Retrieved 24 November 2016. Retrieved 13 January 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017. United Nations Office at Geneva. Retrieved 6 November 2013. United Nations Office at Vienna. Retrieved 6 November 2013. United Nations Office at Nairobi. Retrieved 6 November 2013. UN Department for General Assembly. Retrieved 15 December 2010. Archived from on 28 June 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2010. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 4 December 2013. Decisions of the General Assembly on important questions shall be made by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. These questions shall include: recommendations with respect to the maintenance of international peace and security, the election of the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the election of the members of the Economic and Social Council, the election of members of the Trusteeship Council in accordance with paragraph 1 c of Article 86 of the Charter, the admission of new Members to the United Nations, the suspension of the rights and privileges of membership, the expulsion of Members, questions relating to the operation of the trusteeship system, and budgetary questions. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2013. International Court of Justice. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 4 November 2011. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 7 November 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2013. Retrieved 3 April 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2016. Retrieved 30 December 2008. Archived from on 28 July 2009. Retrieved 8 February 2007. Retrieved 21 November 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2013. Retrieved 22 November 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2017. Retrieved 18 November 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013. Retrieved 4 May 2007. Retrieved 21 November 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2007. Retrieved 22 November 2013. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Retrieved 22 November 2013. Retrieved 6 November 2013. Retrieved 7 February 2014. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved 21 November 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2013. Archived from PDF on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2013. Espoir in French 102. Archived from on 10 July 2009. Retrieved 12 January 2014. Retrieved 12 January 2014. Retrieved 12 January 2014. Permanent Mission of France to the United Nations. Retrieved 25 November 2013. Retrieved 21 September 2006. Retrieved 27 November 2013. Genocide: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. Soldiers of Diplomacy: The United Nations, Peacekeeping, and the New World Order. University of Toronto Press. An Insider's Guide to the UN. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. The A to Z of the United Nations. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. Tower of Babble: How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos. New York: Crown Forum. Admission to the United Nations: Charter Article 4 and the Rise of Universal Organization. Legal Aspects of International Organization. Leiden, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. FDR and the Creation of the U. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. New York: Random House. Volume 3: Defender of the Realm, 1940—1965. New York: Little Brown and Company. United Nations: The First Fifty Years. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. Capital of the World: The Race to Host the United Nations. New York University Press. Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements. Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations: A Story of Super Powers, Secret Agents, Wartime Allies and Enemies, and Their Quest for a Peaceful World. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History. New York: Harper and Brothers. The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations. A Lethal Obsession: Anti-Semitism from Antiquity to the Global Jihad. New York: Random House.
Last updated
